Mark Holmes, PhD

Director, North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center

Phone: 919.966.7100
Email: mark_holmes@unc.edu
X: @gmarkholmes

Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill
725 MLK Jr. Blvd., CB 7590
Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7590


Current Projects - (5)

  • Alternative Methods for Defining Rural Hospital Service Area Market
    Options for describing the population served by a rural hospital are limited; geopolitical areas such as counties are convenient, but ZIP-based methods may be more accurate. In this project, we will consider multiple options that tradeoff ease, accuracy, ability to capture trends, and availability.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Hospitals and clinics, Medicare
  • Developing a Post-COVID Financial Distress Index
    This project will update and improve the North Carolina Rural Health Research Program's Financial Distress Index, which uses historical data about hospital financial performance, government reimbursement, organizational characteristics, and market characteristics to predict the current risk of financial distress.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Hospitals and clinics, Medicare
  • Long-term Implications of Declining Inpatient Revenue on Bed Surge Capacity and Emergency Preparedness
    Inpatient use and key health care services offered at rural hospitals have declined over the past decade. Has the quest for efficiency in hospitals led to a dangerously low surge capacity and ability to effectively handle public health emergencies?
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Hospitals and clinics, Medicare
  • Low Volume Hospitals
    This analysis will compare rural low volume hospitals (LVHs) to non-LVH characteristics and estimate the financial impact of eliminating the LVH program and reverting to the original (2005) LVH classification and payment adjustment.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Hospitals and clinics, Medicare
  • Rural-Urban Differences in Medicaid Utilization
    Nationwide, approximately 1 in 4 rural residents are insured by Medicaid, yet we lack basic understanding of rural-urban differences in Medicaid utilization.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Medicaid and CHIP, Minority health

Completed Projects - (24)

  • A Chartbook of Rural Population Health
    This project created a chartbook of population health for rural areas. This resource was designed to allow policymakers and practitioners to better understand rural-urban disparities across a wide variety of population health indicators.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Health disparities and health equity, Public health
  • Can a Model Predict Financial Distress Among Rural Hospitals?
    This project will extend an existing model of CAH financial distress to other types of rural hospitals. A valid model would be helpful to ORHP and state Offices of rural Health interested in predicting financial distress or closure of rural hospitals.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Critical Access Hospitals (CAHs), Hospitals and clinics
  • Cardiovascular & Cancer Rates for the Rural Delta Region
    This interactive tool can be used to compare county-level rates and incidence of cancer and cardiovascular related health measures for people residing in the lower Mississippi River Delta Region. Users may filter by various health measures and download images and data.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Cancer, Chronic diseases and conditions, Diabetes, Health disparities and health equity, Obesity
  • Change in Service Provision at Rural Hospitals
    The purpose of this study was to compare the services offered by rural hospitals (to urban hospitals) over time (2009-2017) and among rural hospitals of different size, region, rurality, and payment type.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Healthcare access, Hospitals and clinics
  • Community and Financial Experience of Medicare Dependent Hospitals in Comparison to Other Rural Hospitals
    This research will investigate the community and financial experience of Medicare Dependent Hospitals (MDHs) in comparison with other rural hospitals. Analysis of the financial experience will include comparison of the long-term profitability of MDHs to other rural hospitals, estimation of the potential profitability consequences of eliminating the payment classification, and estimation of the potential consequences of maintaining the payment classification but failing to update the base year from which costs are trended forward.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Hospitals and clinics, Medicare, Medicare Prospective Payment System (PPS)
  • Comparison of Rural Hospital Closures and the Communities Served, 1990-2020
    This project examined rural hospital closures during three decades to profile community characteristics, health status, health care services, and resources available in communities where rural hospitals have closed.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Health disparities and health equity, Health reform, Healthcare access, Healthcare financing, Hospitals and clinics, Medicare
  • Comprehensive Study of Swing Bed Use in Rural Hospitals
    This project will comprehensively address questions about how swing beds are used by rural hospitals. Questions to be answered include whether decision about use are driven by patient need, community resources, hospital operational concerns or some combination of these factors; the cost implications of swing bed use in critical access hospitals to the Medicare program; and whether patients served in swing beds differ in meaningful ways from those in skilled nursing facilities.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Hospitals and clinics, Medicare, Medicare Prospective Payment System (PPS)
  • Do Rural Communities Have a Higher Rate of Avoidable Deaths?
    Based on some estimates, roughly half of deaths were avoidable in the sense they stem from risky behavior. What was less well known was the degree to which there was a rural-urban disparity in this rate.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Cancer, Health disparities and health equity
  • Early Rural Experiences of Changes to Medicaid: Year 1
    In January 2014, some states will expand eligibility through the Medicaid program, while other states will not. Because rural residents are likely to be disproportionately affected by Medicaid expansion, understanding this interstate variation has important policy implications.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topic: Medicaid and CHIP
  • Exploring Regional Differences in Rural and Urban Mortality Trends
    Explores the differences in U.S. mortality rates by urban and rural location, census division, and urban and rural location within each census division. The gap in nationwide urban-rural mortality is often told as a national story, but the changes are regional. This implies different regions may need different strategies for addressing the gap.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topic: Health disparities and health equity
  • Factors Predicting Swing Bed Versus Skilled Nursing Facility Use
    This project updated our 2014 brief: Discharge to Swing Bed or Skilled Nursing Facility: Who Goes Where? In addition to examining health conditions of patients discharged from rural Prospective Payment System hospitals and Critical Access Hospitals to swing beds and skilled nursing facilities, this project also looked to see what has changed over time and whether race and ethnicity, sex, or age explain differences.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Hospitals and clinics, Long-term care, Medicare
  • Financial Performance of Critical Access Hospitals, Pre- and Post-Conversion
    Making use of the financial indicators developed by project staff, the focus of this project is a longitudinal analysis of the dimensions and indicators of financial performance. Descriptive analyses are used to capture changes in all dimensions of financial performance pre- and post-conversion.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Critical Access Hospitals (CAHs), Healthcare financing, Medicare Prospective Payment System (PPS), Rural Hospital Flexibility Program
  • Hospital Readmission Following Care in a Swing Bed
    This study built on our portfolio of swing bed work by examining the rate of hospital readmission for patients who receive post-acute care in swing beds compared to skilled nursing facilities and informed the discussion on use, cost, and benefit of swing bed care.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Hospitals and clinics, Medicare, Medicare Prospective Payment System (PPS), Post-acute care, Quality
  • How Do Costs for Rural Medicare Beneficiaries Using Swing Beds Compare to Those Using Skilled Nursing Facilities?
    This study estimated and compared total Medicare expenditures for episodes of care that include post-acute stays in either swing beds or skilled nursing facilities (SNFs). Results informed federal and state agencies, rural providers and communities as to how post-acute care in swing bed versus a SNF affects the trajectory of costs and utilization for rural Medicare beneficiaries.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Long-term care, Medicare, Post-acute care
  • How Have Changes in Insurance Coverage Under Health Reform Affected Uncompensated Care and Financial Performance in Rural Hospitals?
    This two-year project will explore the effects of changes in insurance coverage under health reform on the following outcomes in rural hospitals: (1) bad debt; (2) charity care; (3) payer mix (Medicare, Medicaid, other); (3) financial performance; and (4) hospital revenue cycle management. Results will inform federal and state agencies, rural providers and communities as to how implementation of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act is impacting reimbursement and financial performance of rural hospitals, allowing the Office of Rural Health Policy to identify emerging challenges and develop strategies or policy changes needed to deal with any unintended consequences.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Health reform, Hospitals and clinics, Private health insurance, Uninsured and underinsured
  • How Have Changes in Insurance Coverage Under Health Reform Affected Uncompensated Care and Financial Performance in Rural Hospitals? (Year 2)
    The second year of this two-year project will explore the effects of changes in insurance coverage under health reform on the following outcomes in rural hospitals: (1) bad debt; (2) charity care; (3) payer mix (Medicare, Medicaid, other); and (4) financial performance.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Health reform, Healthcare financing, Medicaid and CHIP, Medicare, Private health insurance, Uninsured and underinsured
  • How Rural Communities Respond and Recover after a Hospital Closure
    Current rates of rural hospital closures are the highest seen in the last few decades. What can we learn from the experiences of communities experiencing hospital closures?
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Hospitals and clinics, Workforce
  • Identifying Limitations of PPS Reimbursement for Rural Hospitals
    This project will investigate the potential financial and access consequences of returning rural hospitals to PPS payment. Characteristics of the hospitals and communities at highest risk of adverse consequences will be identified.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Healthcare financing, Hospitals and clinics
  • Patterns of Care in Small Rural Areas: Implications for New Models of Care Provision and Payment such as Bundled Payments and Accountable Care Organizations
    This study will describe usual patterns of care in rural areas to determine whether rural areas are part of a single service area, or whether smaller communities utilize services from a variety of larger hubs. The results of this analysis will inform a thought piece on how the concepts of bundled payments and Accountable Care Organizations might play out in small rural areas and whether small rural communities can be assigned to a single service area without major disruption of current patterns of care.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topic: Health services
  • Patterns of Inpatient Care-Seeking by Rural Residents
    This study seeks to gain an understanding of inpatient care-seeking behavior by rural residents to provide insight into drivers of bypass rates, the extent to which a community uses a hospital other than its local rural hospital.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Health services, Hospitals and clinics, Medicare
  • Policy Analysis Using the Financial Distress Model: Does Medicaid Expansion Affect the Risk of Hospital Financial Distress and Closure?
    This study will build on the 2014-15 approved project entitled "Can a Model Predict Financial Distress among Rural Hospitals?" The newly developed model uses current financial performance and market characteristic data to assign rural hospitals to one of four categories of risk of financial distress. The study will use Medicare Cost Report data for 2014, if available. Otherwise, simulation will be used to estimate the effects on financial distress.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Hospitals and clinics, Medicaid and CHIP
  • Post-Acute Care for Rural Medicare Beneficiaries
    This project described the variation in the volume, mix and financial importance of post-acute services to rural hospitals; identified hospital and community characteristics associated with variation in post-acute services provided by rural hospitals; and determined where rural Medicare beneficiaries receive post-acute services.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Hospitals and clinics, Long-term care, Post-acute care
  • Rural Health Clinics: Medicare & Medicaid Profile (Year 2)
    Year 2 of a project developing a longitudinal data collection/tracking mechanism of key RHC Medicare claims data and cost report elements. RHC Medicaid data for a sample of states also will be requested and analyzed to determine utilization patterns and identification of potential quality metrics.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Medicaid and CHIP, Medicare, Rural Health Clinics (RHCs)
  • Rural Hospital Closure and Effect on Local Economies
    Several research projects have analyzed the health effects of rural hospital closures. However, highly cited evidence on the economic effects of rural hospital closures is more than a decade old. The purpose of this study was to quantify the economic impact rural hospital closures have on communities.
    Research center: North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Topics: Health disparities and health equity, Health reform, Healthcare access, Healthcare financing, Hospitals and clinics, Medicare

Publications - (72)

2023

  • Rural Population Health in the United States: A Chartbook
    Chartbook
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 02/2023
    This chartbook uses a range of indicators to describe population health in rural America and document health disparities between rural and urban areas. This report includes 33 measures of population health, organized into five domains: Access to Care, Health Outcomes and Risks, Mortality, Social Determinants of Health, and Socioeconomics.

2022

  • Factors Predicting Swing Bed Versus Skilled Nursing Facility Use
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 10/2022
    This study examines differences between patients discharged to swing beds versus skilled nursing facilities, stratifying by admitting hospital type (i.e., rural Critical Access Hospital versus rural Prospective Payment System hospital).
  • Changes in the Provision of Health Care Services by Rural Critical Access Hospitals and Prospective Payment System Hospitals in 2009 Compared to 2017
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 08/2022
    The purpose of this brief is to explore changes in the availability and provision of different health care services among rural CAHs and PPS hospitals in 2009 compared to 2017.
  • Association Between Rural Hospital Service Changes and Community Demographics
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 05/2022
    Research has shown that among rural communities, those with a larger percentage of Black or Hispanic residents were more likely to experience a local hospital closure. This brief explores possible associations between the proportion of a rural community belonging to a AHRQ-identified priority population and local hospital service changes.
  • The Economic Effects of Rural Hospital Closures
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 03/2022
    This study updates previous research (Holmes, et al. 2006) on the economic effects of rural hospital closures by measuring the economic changes over time among U.S. rural counties that had a hospital closure from 2001-2018.
  • Rural Hospital Profitability During the Global COVID-19 Pandemic Requires Careful Interpretation
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center, Rapid Response to Requests for Rural Data Analysis
    Date: 03/2022
    Many small rural hospitals struggle with profitability compared to their urban counterparts. The findings brief describes the pre-pandemic (2011-19) trend of rural hospital profitability and explains why possible increases in reported profitability during the pandemic (2020-21) may mask the long-term financial challenges of rural hospitals.
  • Since 1990, Rural Hospital Closures Have Increasingly Occurred in Counties That Are More Urbanized, Diverse, and Economically Unequal
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 03/2022
    The brief describes the socio‐economic, demographic, and health system characteristics for rural counties with and without hospital closures between 1990 and 2020. We analyzed potential differences among counties that experienced rural hospital closures from 2010‐2020 compared to counties with rural hospital closures from 1990‐2009.

2021

  • Cardiovascular & Cancer Rates for the Rural Delta Region: Rural Delta Region Map Tool
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 08/2021
    The Rural Delta Region Map Tool is an interactive tool that shows 13 health measures for people in Delta Region counties/parishes. It can be used to compare rates of cancer and cardiovascular disease by county, by rural-urban status, to peer counties, to the national average, and to national quartiles.
  • How Many Hospitals Might Convert to a Rural Emergency Hospital?
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 07/2021
    In this study, three measures were used to predict the number of rural hospitals with 50 beds or less that are likely to consider conversion to a Rural Emergency Hospital: 1) three years negative total margin; 2) average daily census (acute + swing) less than three; and 3) net patient revenue less than $20 million.
  • Changes in Provision of Selected Services by Rural and Urban Hospitals Between 2009 and 2017
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 04/2021
    The purpose of this study is to gain a better understanding of recent trends in hospital service provision and whether there were disparities between rural and urban hospitals. This brief describes and compares the changes in service provision for rural and urban hospitals between 2009 and 2017.

2020

  • Decline in Inpatient Volume at Rural Hospitals
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 12/2020
    This study examined inpatient volume in rural hospitals between 2011 and 2017. Patient population and the organizational and geographic characteristics of hospitals that were significant predictors of inpatient volume included census region, Medicare payment type, ownership type, total margin, and percent of the population in poverty.
  • Rural Hospitalizations for COVID-19: Snapshot on December 10, 2020
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center, Rapid Response to Requests for Rural Data Analysis
    Date: 12/2020
    U.S. Department of Health and Human Services data were analyzed to compare rural and urban hospitals on two metrics: 1) the percentage of hospitalized patients with COVID-19, and 2) the percentage of hospital beds occupied by patients that have COVID-19.
  • Rural Hospitals Have Higher Percentages of Patients With COVID-19
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center, Rapid Response to Requests for Rural Data Analysis
    Date: 12/2020
    U.S. Department of Health and Human Services data were analyzed to compare the percentage of hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in rural versus urban hospitals.
  • Changes in Care-Seeking After Rural Hospitals Merge
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 07/2020
    Rural hospital mergers have increased significantly since 2010. Enhanced financial performance and improved quality are often cited as benefits, but hospital mergers can also lead to changes in the services provided by acquired hospitals. This brief estimates the use of inpatient services delivered by acquired rural hospitals following a merger.
  • Patterns of Hospital Bypass and Inpatient Care-Seeking by Rural Residents
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 04/2020
    Hospital bypass, the tendency of local rural residents to not seek care at their closest hospital, is thought to be a contributing factor for rural hospital closure. The purpose of this brief is to update the knowledge base of determinants of bypass behavior by analyzing state inpatient data from 2014-2016.

2019

2018

  • Geographic Variation in the 2016 Profitability of Urban and Rural Hospitals
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 03/2018
    This study describes the geographic variation in 2016 profitability of critical access hospitals (CAHs), other rural hospitals (Medicare Dependent Hospitals, Sole Community Hospitals, and rural Prospective Payment System (PPS) hospitals denoted as "ORH"), and urban PPS hospitals by census region, census division, and state.

2017

2016

  • How Would Rural Hospitals Be Affected by Loss of the Affordable Care Act's Medicare Low-Volume Hospital Adjustment?
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 11/2016
    Using data from the Hospital Market Service Area File, the Hospital Cost Report Information System, and Nielsen-Claritas Pop-Facts, this study examined the effect the low-volume hospital payment adjustment has on a hospital's finances. It also looked at the effects of losing the payment adjustment.
  • The Financial Importance of the Sole Community Hospital Payment Designation
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 11/2016
    Assesses the financial importance of the Sole Community Hospital (SCH) program by: the proportion of SCHs that was reimbursed at the hospital specific rate between 2006 and 2015; the profitability of providing services to Medicare patients in SCHs between 2006 and 2015, and; the financial consequences if the SCH program had not existed in 2015.
  • To What Extent Do Community Characteristics Explain Differences in Closure Among Financially Distressed Rural Hospitals?
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 11/2016
    This study examined the differences between rural hospitals at high risk of financial distress that stayed open and those that closed.
  • The Impact of the Low Volume Hospital (LVH) Program on the Viability of Small, Rural Hospitals
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 10/2016
    This brief compares rural Low Volume Hospital (LVH) to non-LVH characteristics and estimates the financial impact of eliminating the LVH program and reverting to the original (2005) LVH classification and payment adjustment.
  • Trends in Risk of Financial Distress Among Rural Hospitals
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 10/2016
    From January 2005 to July 2016, 118 rural hospitals have closed permanently, and the rate of rural hospital closures is increasing. Hospital closures impact millions of rural residents. Identifying hospitals at high risk of closure and assessing the trends over time may inform strategies to prevent or mitigate the effects of closures.
  • Characteristics of Medicaid Beneficiaries Who Use Rural Health Clinics
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 05/2016
    The RHC role varies by state. While we don't have an understanding of what this looks like for each state, we can see that RHCs are an important provider for Medicaid beneficiaries. One of the most important differences is by age groups. All states tend to cater RHC services toward children, with a minimum of 39% of the RHC population < 18.
  • Identifying Rural Health Clinics in Medicaid Data
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 05/2016
    Identifying Rural Health Clinics (RHCs) in Medicaid claims across states is challenging, but this brief recommends methods for identifying the majority of these claims in four states.
  • 2012-14 Profitability of Urban and Rural Hospitals by Medicare Payment Classification
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 03/2016
    The profitability of urban hospitals to that of rural hospitals are compared for fiscal years 2012-2014 based on size and rural Medicare payment classifications.
  • Geographic Variation in the Profitability of Urban and Rural Hospitals
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 03/2016
    Historic and recent evidence suggest that unprofitability can reduce hospital services and quality, or worse, lead to closure. This study describes the current geographic variability of hospital profitability by comparing the 2014 profitability of CAHs, other rural hospitals, and urban hospitals by census region, census division, and state.
  • Geographic Variation in Risk of Financial Distress Among Rural Hospitals
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 01/2016
    From 2005 to 2015, 112 rural hospital closures have been identified. The closures impact millions of rural residents. This brief describes the geographic variation in the proportion of rural hospitals forecasted to be at high risk of distress in 2015.
  • Prediction of Financial Distress Among Rural Hospitals
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 01/2016
    From 2005 to 2015, more than 100 rural hospitals have closed their doors to patients in need of inpatient services. To understand factors affecting rural hospital financial distress and to develop an early warning system to identify hospitals at risk, the North Carolina Rural Health Research Program developed the Financial Distress Index.

2015

  • Rural Medicare Beneficiaries Have Fewer Follow-Up Visits and Greater Emergency Department Use Post-Discharge
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 09/2015
    Compares rates of post hospital discharge care among Medicare beneficiaries in rural and urban settings. Discusses the effect on policies for follow-up care and readmission penalties.
  • The Rising Rate of Rural Hospital Closures
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 07/2015
    Discusses the increase in rural hospital closure rates, including the causes of closures and its impact on rural communities.
  • Minimum Distance Requirements Could Harm High-Performing CAHs and Rural Communities
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center, University of Minnesota Rural Health Research Center
    Date: 04/2015
    Compares the effect of location on critical access hospitals' size, quality of care, and financial strength. Discusses implications of minimum distance requirements on critical access hospitals.
  • The 21st Century Rural Hospital: A Chart Book
    Chartbook
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 03/2015
    This chartbook presents a broad profile of rural hospitals and includes information on location, who they serve, services they provide, how they ensure outpatient services for their communities, other community benefits they provide, and financial performance. Each page includes charts comparing rural hospitals to each other and to urban hospitals.
  • Do Current Medicare Rural Hospital Payment Systems Align With Cost Determinants?
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 02/2015
    To inform policy discussions on how complex current payment models may affect rural hospitals, the North Carolina Rural Health Research Program studied differences in financial condition among rural hospitals and important determinants of differences in rural hospital costs.
  • Rural Provider Perceptions of the ACA: Case Studies in Four States
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 02/2015
    This brief summarizes the perceptions from rural providers in four states regarding the early effects of the Affordable Care Act, including changes to patient populations, financial health, and capacity for rural hospitals and rural federally qualified health centers.
  • Financially Fragile Hospitals: Mergers and Closures
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 01/2015
    Evaluates the causes of financial stress in rural hospitals, and describes the impact rural hospitals have on their communities. Also discusses the ways in which rural hospitals and communities have responded to this financial stress.
  • The Effect of Surgery on the Profitability of Rural Hospitals
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 2015
    Presents research on the effect of providing surgery in rural hospitals. Examines the availability of surgery's effect on trauma outcomes and economies in rural communities.

2014

  • Best Practices for Health Insurance Marketplace Outreach and Enrollment in Rural Areas
    Fact Sheet
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 12/2014
    Research suggests enrollment rates for those in rural areas was less than urban areas during the first Health Insurance Marketplace enrollment period. Interviews of navigators, health centers, and others in rural counties with high enrollment rates were conducted to uncover best practices for marketing, outreach/education, in-reach, and enrollment.
  • Rural-Urban Differences in Continuity of Care Among Medicare Beneficiaries
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 12/2014
    In response to the ACA and other reforms in the healthcare market, new care models are being tested and implemented. To addresses concerns that healthcare in rural areas may be more fractured and thus a difficult place for the models to succeed, we measured continuity of care using detailed data on a sample of Medicare beneficiaries from 2000-2009.
  • Geographic Variation in Plan Uptake in the Federally Facilitated Marketplace
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 10/2014
    This brief combines the data on plan selection in the federally facilitated marketplaces with estimates of those likely to qualify for the marketplace to calculate the percentage of potential eligible individuals who chose a health insurance plan (the uptake rate). It contains a heat map showing the variation in uptake rates across the country.
  • Rural Hospital Mergers and Acquisitions: Who Is Being Acquired and What Happens Afterward?
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 08/2014
    A brief from the North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center examines the implications of mergers and acquisitions for small rural hospitals. The brief addresses the characteristics of rural hospitals that merged and the changes in hospital financial performance, staffing, or services following a merger.
  • How Does Medicaid Expansion Affect Insurance Coverage of Rural Populations?
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 07/2014
    This brief examines how states' decisions on Medicaid expansion are impacting rural areas in the United States. Population estimates, current state expansion status, and state-level insurance estimates were used to answer two main questions—how is expansion affecting rural populations and how would it differ if every state were to expand Medicaid.
  • Safety Net Clinics Serving the Elderly in Rural Areas: Rural Health Clinic Patients Compared to Federally Qualified Health Center Patients
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 05/2014
    This brief, the third and final in a series on rural health centers (RHC), uses data from 2009 Medicare outpatient provider claims to look at clinic locations, number of beneficiaries served, and number of/cost per claim for each type of rural safety net clinic, as well as beneficiaries' ages, health problems, and distance traveled for care.
  • Discharge to Swing Bed or Skilled Nursing Facility: Who Goes Where?
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 02/2014
    This brief examines health conditions of patients discharged from rural prospective payment system (PPS) hospitals and critical access hospitals (CAHs) to swing beds and skilled nursing facilities (SNFs).

2013

  • Change in Profitability and Financial Distress of Critical Access Hospitals From Loss of Cost-Based Reimbursement
    Rapid Response to Requests for Rural Data Analysis
    Date: 12/2013
    Changes to Critical Access Hospitals' reimbursement, such as a reversion to prospective payment, would have marked negative effects on CAHs. About three quarters of CAHs would operate at a loss. The number of CAHs at high risk for financial distress would nearly triple, and nearly half would be at medium-high to high risk of financial distress.
  • Implications for Beneficiary Travel Time if Financially-Vulnerable Critical Access Hospitals Close
    Rapid Response to Requests for Rural Data Analysis
    Date: 12/2013
    Changes to Critical Access Hospitals' reimbursement may spur some to close. This analysis considers the communities served by the 93 CAHs with the lowest profitability and therefore most likely to close due to a change in Medicare reimbursement.
  • Rural/Urban Differences in Inpatient Related Costs and Use Among Medicare Beneficiaries
    Rapid Response to Requests for Rural Data Analysis
    Date: 12/2013
    Medicare beneficiaries who are admitted to rural hospitals tend to have lower outpatient costs than their counterparts at urban hospitals. The differences are due to multiple factors. The analysis suggests that consideration of the total cost of an acute episode of care might be considered, not just the cost of the acute inpatient stay.
  • Geographic Variation in the Profitability of Critical Access Hospitals
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 09/2013
    This study describes geographic variation in the profitability of Critical Access Hospitals (CAHs) in 2012 to understand some of the regional differences in the potential effects of implementing policy proposals impacting CAHs.
  • Profitability of Rural Hospitals
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 08/2013
    This study compares the profitability between 2010 and 2012 of urban and rural hospitals paid under the Medicare Prospective Payment System (U-PPS and R-PPS, respectively) to rural hospitals with special Medicare payment provisions.
  • Provision of Uncompensated Care by Rural Hospitals: A Preliminary Look at Medicare Cost Report Worksheet S-10
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 08/2013
    This brief is a preliminary assessment of uncompensated care data quality included in Medicare Cost Report Worksheet S-10 for critical access hospitals and other rural hospitals to identify data quality issue implications for research and policy decisions. Worksheet S-10 data were collected from the Healthcare Cost Reporting Information System.
  • Profile of Rural Health Clinics: Clinic & Medicare Patient Characteristics
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 03/2013
    This brief presents a summary of the geographic distribution and clinic-level characteristics of rural health clinics, as well as an overview of the Medicare beneficiaries they served.

2010

2009

  • Characteristics of Rural & Urban Children Who Qualify for Medicaid or CHIP but Are Not Enrolled
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 07/2009
    About three-quarters of children who qualify for Medicaid or CHIP are enrolled, with slightly higher rates in rural areas than in urban areas. This leaves one in four qualified children without insurance coverage.
  • Medicaid & CHIP Participation Among Rural & Urban Children
    Policy Brief
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 07/2009
    This policy brief describes the characteristics of rural and urban children who qualify for Medicaid or CHIP but are uninsured.
  • A Rural-Urban Comparison of Allied Health Average Hourly Wages
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 01/2009
    This report uses data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics to describe the extent to which rural-urban differentials exist in wages for 11 allied health professions, focusing on professions that are both likely to be found in rural communities and have adequate data to support hourly wage estimates.

2007

2006

2005

2004

  • Cesarean Section Patterns in Rural Hospitals
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 11/2004
    This paper examines childbirth delivery patterns in rural hospitals and compares the cesarean section rate in rural hospitals to that in urban hospitals.

2003

  • Unpredictable Demand and Low-Volume Hospitals
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 01/2003
    This findings brief assesses the degree to which the annual number of patient discharges varies from year to year for low-volume hospitals.
  • Unstable Demand and Cost per Case in Low-Volume Hospitals
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 01/2003
    This findings brief looks at the effects of year-to-year changes in annual inpatient discharges on costs per Medicare discharge.